Languages, environmental knowledge and living cultures of southern Africa
San peoples at a glance
San is a collective name for diverse peoples of southern Africa, including communities in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. There is no single shared San language. Explore their languages, ostrich eggshell water containers, rock art and community initiatives, with a closer look at Juǀ’hoan writing and research on play.
Main homelands
Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and other parts of southern Africa
The name “San”
A collective term for diverse peoples and communities
Languages
Several languages belonging to different families
Explore on this page
Clicks, writing, water containers, rock art, play and life today
Where do the San peoples live?
San communities live across southern Africa, notably in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. The Kalahari is associated with many communities, but the region should not be confused with a single country. Southern Africa is a region; South Africa is one country within it.[1][11]
The name covers different communities, including Juǀ’hoansi, Khwe and ǂKhomani. Older publications and museum records may use “Bushmen.” When reading about a particular community, look for its own name and the place and period being described, rather than assuming one label explains everyone.[1][11]
What languages do the San peoples speak?
There is no single language spoken by all San people. Nor do the languages associated with San communities form one language family. Juǀ’hoan, Nǁng and Khwe illustrate some of that diversity.[2][3][4]
Examples of languages associated with San communities
Language
Family
Names in the sources
Juǀ’hoan
Kxʼa
ASJP: Juhoan; Glottolog: South-Eastern Ju
Nǁng
Tuu
Glottolog: N||ng
Khwe
Khoe-Kwadi
Also listed as Kxoe
This is a selection, not a complete inventory of San communities or their languages. Spellings and symbols vary between sources.[2][3][4]
“Khoisan languages” does not mean one established family. The label has been used broadly for languages associated with this region and its clicks. The family classifications above are different: a shared sound feature does not by itself establish a shared linguistic ancestry.[2][3][4]
Click consonants: sounds that form part of words
Clicks are speech sounds made through closures and releases inside the mouth. In Juǀ’hoan, they function as consonants within words. WALS records clicks as a feature of this language.[5]
Phonetic descriptions distinguish four basic click types in Juǀ’hoan: dental, lateral, alveolar and palatal. These types can combine with further distinctions, including voicing and nasality. The four symbols below therefore do not represent its entire consonant system.[15]
Four basic Juǀ’hoan click types in phonetic descriptions
Symbol
Click type
ǀ
Dental
ǁ
Lateral
ǃ
Alveolar
ǂ
Palatal
These are part of a language's sound system, not simply sound effects. Learning them means listening to how speakers use them in words. A pronunciation guide that replaces a click with an ordinary English consonant loses part of the sound.
Writing Juǀ’hoan: community literacy and teaching
Juǀ’hoan has a practical writing system. Between 1989 and 1992, linguist Patrick Dickens revised its existing orthography and developed teaching materials. His work included teaching adult literacy and preparing future teachers for Nyae Nyae communities in Namibia.[12]
The Village Schools Project began in 1991 and became part of Namibia's national education system in 2004. This connects writing with classrooms and community education, rather than only academic descriptions of a spoken language.[12]
Juǀ’hoan (Tsumkwe dialect) on the cover of a children's picture dictionary, alongside Afrikaans and English.
The cover offers a visible example of written Juǀ’hoan. Symbols that may look unfamiliar to an English reader form part of the written text. When learning an expression, identify the language and spelling system first, then use reliable recordings or a teacher's guidance for pronunciation.
Ostrich eggshell water bottles: carrying water and planning ahead
This ostrich egg was also a water container. Penn Museum holds a decorated example from Botswana, catalogued as an ostrich egg water bottle. The object turns an everyday-looking shell into evidence of practical knowledge.[6]
How did an eggshell become a bottle?
Make a small opening. Remove the contents while leaving most of the shell intact.
Clean and fill the shell. The empty shell becomes a vessel for water.
Close the opening. Pitt Rivers Museum describes closures made with grass or a limpet shell.[7]
Why put water underground?
Carrying water was only one use. Lander and Russell's study discusses G/wi communities in Botswana storing water-filled eggshells underground for the dry season. It also cites accounts of !Kung people in Nyae Nyae, Namibia, taking filled shells on gathering trips.[8]
These examples show two ways of preparing: take water with you, or keep a supply for later. A container becomes more useful when combined with knowledge of the landscape and an understanding of when water will be needed.
These are documented practices from particular communities and historical settings. They do not describe every San person's life today.
Rock art and the places that hold it
Tsodilo, a World Heritage site in Botswana, offers one way to explore the region's rock art. UNESCO describes its hills and water holes as a sacred cultural landscape for local San and Hambukushu communities.[9]
The paintings are part of a place with cultural significance for living communities. Their setting matters alongside the figures on the rock. One site should not be treated as a complete account of all San peoples, and the age of an archaeological site should not be confused with the date of every image found there.
Play and games: learning, strategy and social life
Children learning with their playmates
Kaoru Imamura's research on San children's hunting play examines how imitation helps children learn toolmaking and tool use. In the study, children often learned from playmates rather than through direct adult instruction. Older boys sometimes helped younger children finish a toy when they became stuck.[13]
The example shows learning happening through shared activity. It is an account of the children studied, rather than a rule about every San child's upbringing.
Juǀ’hoan games are not all noncompetitive
A study by Alex de Voogt examines three strategic games played by Juǀ’hoan adults: a board game, a card game and the gesture game n!àì. The research describes games being adopted and adapted through contact with neighbouring societies, and n!àì developing into a competitive game.[14]
It would therefore be misleading to describe all San play as having no winners or competition. Children's imitation, adult strategy games and social gatherings raise different questions. The research treats games as opportunities for interaction across social and cultural boundaries.[14]
Life today and knowledge for the next generation
Hunting and gathering are not the only ways San people make a living. Farming, livestock keeping and paid work may also contribute to livelihoods. Communities' circumstances differ, and present-day lives cannot be reduced to a single historical image.[1]
Community initiatives supported by Kalahari Peoples Fund include village playgroups that introduce literacy and maths through play. A Juǀ’hoansi-language click puzzle is one example. Its projects also include support for artists and a tracking school in Nyae Nyae, linking knowledge and cultural work with opportunities for younger people.[10]
In South Africa, the San Council of South Africa brings together members of !Xun, Khwe, ǂKhomani and /Xam communities. Its work focuses on rights, livelihoods and protecting indigenous knowledge. This is one organisation working with communities within that country, rather than a body representing every San person across southern Africa.[11]
Questions about the San peoples
Do all San people speak the same language?
No. The name covers diverse communities, and the language examples on this page belong to different families.[2][3][4]
Are all these languages part of one Khoisan family?
No. Juǀ’hoan is classified in Kxʼa, Nǁng in Tuu and Khwe in Khoe-Kwadi. A broad label or shared use of clicks does not make them one established language family.[2][3][4]
Can Juǀ’hoan be written?
Yes. It has a practical orthography used in literacy and teaching materials. The work associated with Patrick Dickens and the Village Schools Project is one example.[12]
Were ostrich eggshells really used as water bottles?
Yes. Museums preserve examples, and research describes their use for transporting and storing water in particular communities and periods.[6][7][8]
Do all San people live by hunting and gathering today?
No. Livelihoods vary, and can include farming, livestock keeping and paid work alongside other activities.[1]
They have lived in southern Africa for tens of thousands of years, maintaining a lifestyle close to that of early humans.
Some San communities continue to practice traditional hunting and gathering even today.
The San people are one of the Indigenous peoples of southern Africa. They primarily live in:
Botswana
Namibia
South Africa
Angola
Zambia
Zimbabwe
and neighboring regions.
The area around the: Kalahari Desert
is especially well known as one of the traditional homelands of many San communities.
The San are considered one of the oldest Indigenous population groups in southern Africa and have attracted significant attention in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, and genetics.
The term "San" is a collective name that refers to several related groups. Within the broader San population, there are diverse communities with different languages, cultural traditions, and histories.
Linguistically, many San languages are often associated with what are commonly called: Khoisan languages
These languages are widely known for their use of:
The San developed extensive knowledge of the natural environment, including plants, animals, and survival techniques in arid regions. This traditional ecological knowledge continues to be of interest to researchers today.
San societies were traditionally organized into small community groups. Cooperation, resource sharing, and social equality often played important roles in daily life.
In terms of religion and spirituality, traditional San beliefs have emphasized relationships with nature, animals, ancestors, and spiritual forces.
Ceremonies involving:
Dance
Singing
Healing rituals
have long been important aspects of San cultural life.
The San are also well known for their rock art traditions.
Across parts of South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and neighboring regions, numerous rock paintings and rock engravings have been discovered. These artworks often depict:
Animals
Hunting scenes
Ceremonies
Daily life
and are considered valuable sources of information about the prehistoric cultures of southern Africa.
During the modern era, San communities experienced major changes due to state formation, land policies, conservation programs, and the establishment of protected areas.
As a result, many San people were displaced from traditional territories and faced significant social and economic challenges.
Today, many San communities live in settled villages and towns, while efforts continue to preserve traditional knowledge and cultural practices.
Various initiatives related to:
Land rights
Educational opportunities
Language preservation
Indigenous rights
have also become increasingly important.
Today, the San are recognized as one of the representative Indigenous peoples of southern Africa, and their hunter-gatherer traditions, click languages, rock art, and environmental knowledge continue to represent an important part of humanity’s cultural diversity.
History
The San are among the earliest inhabitants of southern Africa, dating back to the Stone Age.
Around 2,000 years ago, the arrival of Bantu-speaking pastoralists led to the gradual loss of San territories.
During colonial times, the San faced severe displacement and marginalization.
Efforts to reclaim land rights continue into the modern era.
Culture
Hunter-Gatherers:Skilled in hunting with bows and gathering wild plants.
Spiritual Beliefs:Animistic faith centered around nature spirits; known for trance healing dances.
Rock Art:Ancient paintings depicting animals and hunting scenes.
Small-Scale Bands:Nomadic groups of a few dozen individuals.
Cultural context
San is a collective name for diverse peoples. This feature describes documented practices in particular communities and historical settings; it does not describe every San person’s life today.
Spiritual Dances:Sometimes depicted in symbolic artwork.
Language
San Language Features
Features
Use of click consonants (|, ǀ, ǃ, ǂ, ǁ) not found in most other languages.
Flexible word order and rich verbal morphology.
Main San languages include
Juǀʼhoan
!Kung
Nǁng, among others.
Phonetic Features
Juǀ’hoan is distinguished by its extensive use of click consonants, such as dental "ǀ," lateral "ǁ," alveolar "ǃ," and palatal "ǂ," each with voiced, voiceless, and ejective variations. The language also features vowel distinctions based on length, nasalization, glottalization, whisper phonation, and a four-level tonal system, creating a highly complex phonological inventory.
Writing System
Juǀ’hoan traditionally had no writing system until a Latin-based orthography was developed in the 1970s. A practical and standardized writing system was formalized in Namibia in the 1990s through collaboration between linguist Patrick Dickens and the Juǀ’hoan community. Click sounds are represented by unique symbols (ǀ, ǁ, ǃ, ǂ) with special fonts required for digital rendering.
An example of the written Juǀ’hoan language includes children's multilingual picture dictionaries and storybooks, demonstrating the use of special symbols and Latin characters.
Access to San Region (Namibia/Botswana) from Major Cities
Departure City
Direct/Transit
Arrival Airport
Flight Time (approx.)
Reference Fare (one-way/round-trip, Economy)
Los Angeles
LA → Europe/Middle East → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
22–30 hours
US$1,300–2,200
New York
NY → Europe/Middle East → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
21–29 hours
US$1,200–2,000
London
London → Johannesburg → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
14–19 hours
£750–1,300
Tokyo
Tokyo → Middle East/Europe → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
23–32 hours
¥190,000–320,000
Sydney
Sydney → Johannesburg → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
23–32 hours
A$1,900–3,100
Hong Kong
Hong Kong → Johannesburg → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
21–28 hours
HK$9,500–15,000
Shanghai
Shanghai → Johannesburg → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
22–29 hours
CNY8,800–14,000
Singapore
Singapore → Johannesburg → Windhoek
Windhoek Int'l (WDH)
20–28 hours
S$1,400–2,300
Traditional San (Juǀ’hoansi) Games
Children's Hunting Play
Among the Juǀ’hoansi San, children learn life skills through hunting play, crafting small bows, arrows, and slingshots to hunt birds and small animals. Girls mimic gathering practices using small baskets. This type of play emphasizes cooperative learning rather than competitive outcomes, aligning with the egalitarian and non-competitive cultural values of the San community. Adults rarely interfere directly, and older children teach younger ones through imitation and collaborative play.
Musical and Dance
Music and rhythm-based games hold significant social value. Community members gather at dusk, singing and dancing together, reinforcing social cohesion. Traditional trance dances performed by adults are also imitated by children, bridging daily life with ceremonial practices.
Prominent traditional games include rope-skipping, melon games, and "war games," each accompanied by distinct songs. The war game (n!àì) involves teams performing rhythmic songs and gesture-based mime competitions, emphasizing timing and improvisational skills. Originating from ceremonial "porcupine games" associated with successful hunts, the war game evolved into a non-exclusive, everyday entertainment, reflecting the adaptation of traditional practices due to modern restrictions on hunting.
San (Juǀ’hoansi) games thus serve dual purposes: children's learning and adult social rituals, preserving cultural heritage and values across generations.
References
Academic and ethnographic sources on Juǀ’hoan language classification, phonetics, orthography, children's play among the San, traditional games, and associated music and cultural meanings.
1.Bow and Arrow Play
Children practice hunting skills using small bows.
